Different Formulas for Quantitative Chemistry and Mole Conversion

For this unit of quantitative chemistry, there are 3 key formulas for mole conversion that you need to remember.

Concentration and Volume

Formula triangle to find moles, concentration and volume

Different units of measurement for this formula triangle is:

• Concentration – Molarity
• Volume – dm³ or litres
  • Avogadro’s Law is that 1 mole of any gas occuplies the same volume under the same conditions and, at room temperature and pressure, 1 mole of gas is always 24 litres. Molar volume is the volume of 1 mole of gas
  • Room Temperature = 298K or 1 atmosphere (atm)

Mass and Formula Mass

Formula triangle to find out mass, moles and formula mass

Different units of measurement for this formula triangle is:

•  Mass = grams , kilograms, etc

No. Of Particles

Formula triangle to find out no. of particles and moles with Avogadro’s number

Density

This last triangle isn’t for mole conversion, but it’s helpful to know just in case.

Formula triangle for density, mass and volume

Chapter 34: Key Words

Cyclical Unemployment – Cyclical unemployment is when there is unemployment due to a lack of demand or a downturn in the whole economy

Economically Inactive – People who are without a job and aren’t actively seeking nor available for work

Employed – Someone who is with a job

Frictional Unemployment – When there is unemployment due to people being in the process of moving from one job to another (between jobs)

Regional Unemployment – When unemployment is concentrated in a particular region (of a country)

Seasonal Unemployment – When there is unemployment during certain periods in a year due to seasonal changes in production and consumer demand

Sectoral Unemployment – This is when unemployment occurs due to a decline in a particular sector or industry

Structural Unemployment – Structural unemployment is when there is a mismatch of skills in the economy due to a change in structure

Technological Unemployment – When work done by human capital before is replaced by technology and machines.

Unemployed – People who are without a job but are available and actively seeking work

Voluntary Unemployment – This is when unemployment occurs due to people who are willing and able for work chooses not to

Disadvantages and Advantages of Different Energy Resources

Some energy resources can be considered both renewable and non-renewable. Wood and biomass are 2 energy resources that fit into this specification.

Wood can be used as fuel and biomass is a type energy made out of material from other living organisms. Although, both can be deemed renewable if trees/plants are replanted.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Coal

• Advantages
  • One of the cheapest fuels
  • Coal supplies last longer than other fossil fuels (oil and gas)
• Disadvantages
  • Burning coal can emit pollutants such as greenhouse gases as well as chemicals such as mercury, arsenic and lead.
  • The burning of coal is a major contributor to causing smog and acid rain

Oil

• Advantages
  • Like other fossil fuels, oil is reasonably cheap and ready made
  • Can be stored
• Disadvantages
  • When drilling, gas flaring emits carbon dioxide
  • Oil spills can occur
  • Atmospheric pollutants such as greenhouse gases and chemical carcinogens are given off when oil is burnt
  • In short supply

Natural gas

• Advantages
  • Like other fossil fuels, gas is reasonably cheap and ready made
  • Is cleaner compared to other fossil fuels (can produce less carbon dioxide per watt than coal)
  • Can be stored
• Disadvantages
  • Natural Gas is in short supply
  • Atmospheric pollutants such as greenhouse gases are given off when gas is burnt
  • May pollute water

Nuclear

• Advantages
  • Can be stored
  • Doesn’t give off atmospheric pollutants
  • Nuclear emissions are less deadly than fossil fuel emissions
  • Raw materials needed to make nuclear energy is cheap
  • Small amount of radioactive material can go a long way (has a lot of energy)
• Disadvantages
  • Nuclear meltdowns/exposure to radioactive material can lead to land loss and cancer.
  • Needs to be stored safely for a hundred years or more as nuclear waste is toxic
  • Nuclear reactors are expensive to run

Biomass

• Advantages
  • Can be stored
  • If crops are replaced it can be a long-term energy source
  • Reasonably cheap and ready-made
• Disadvantages
  • When burned it may emit toxics
  • If not replanted it is considered a non-renewable energy source

Wood

• Advantages
  • Reasonably cheap and ready-made
  • If trees are replaced it can be a long-term energy source
• Disadvantages
  • If not replanted it is considered a non-renewable energy source
  • When burned it may emit greenhouse gasses

Renewable

Solar

Solar Energy is directly taking energy from the sun through solar panels and converting it into electricity

• Advantages
  • Potentially infinite supply of energy
  • Single residences can have their own supply of electricity
• Disadvantages
  • Solar panels can be expensive

Wind

• Advantages
  • Potentially infinite supply of energy
  • Can be installed on a smaller scale but are generally in wind farms
• Disadvantages
  • Wind turbines can be expensive
  • Cannot be stored
  • Some people think wind turbines spoils the countryside by being on shore
  • Requires a lot of land
  • Kills some bats and birds

Tidal

• Advantages 
  • Ideal for an island country
  • Can generate a lot of energy
  • Tidal barrage can also act as a bridge which helps to prevent flooding
• Disadvantages
  • Can be expensive to construct
  • May reduce tidal flow and impede flow of sewage out to sea.
  • Some believe that it may be damaging to the environment/wildlife

Wave

• Advantages
  • Ideal for an island country
• Disadvantages
  • Can be expensive to construct

Geothermal

• Advantages
  • Low gas emissions
  • Easy to construct
  • Potentially infinite supply
• Disadvantages
  • Few locations are suitable/available
  • Can be expensive to construct
  • Harmful elements discovered during extraction must be disposed of safely

Hydroelectric

• Advantages
  • Creates energy as well as water reserves
• Disadvantages
  • Depends on rainfall
  • Expensive to construct
  • Dams may affect wildlife and natural water systems
  • Large dams can cause earthquakes

Biomass

Refer to “Biomass” under “non-renewable”

Biomass is considered non-renewable if crops are not replanted and renewable if they are.

Wood

Refer to “Wood” under “non-renewable”

Wood is considered non-renewable if trees are not replanted and renewable if they are

Different Types of Unemployment

There are several different reasons as to why people may be unemployed and the different types of unemployment are  cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, frictional unemployment, seasonal unemployment and voluntary unemployment.

Cyclical Unemployment

Cyclical unemployment is when there is unemployment due to a lack of demand or a downturn in the whole economy. Since there is a lack of demand in the whole economy, business activity slows down and results in a lack of demand for goods and services, as a result of this there is a lack of demand in labour as well thus causing unemployment.

Structural Unemployment

The structure of the economy will begin to change over time (which is where the word “structural” comes from) and some skills will be in higher demand than others. Structural unemployment is when there is a mismatch of skills in the economy, workers don’t have the skills required by the labour market and this can cause unemployment.

3 types of structural unemployment are:

• Sectoral Unemployment
  • This is when unemployment occurs due to a decline in a particular sector or industry
• Technological Unemployment
  • When work done by human capital beforehand is replaced by technology and machines.
• Regional Unemployment
  • When unemployment occurs or is concentrated in a particular region (of a country).

Frictional Unemployment

Frictional unemployment is a form of short-term unemployment and is considered the “least worrying” type of unemployment as it will always exist. Since there is always frictional unemployment, this means that the unemployment rate is never > 0%.

Frictional unemployment occurs due to people who are between jobs/moving from one job to another (e.g. quitting their jobs to find another, or may be a student straight out of university who is looking for the right opportunity, must wait a while until their new employment begins, etc). It is considered frictional unemployment if it is in intervals of up to 8 weeks.

Seasonal Unemployment

When there is unemployment for certain/particular times of the year due to seasonal changes in production and consumer demand. For example, in the hospitality industry, the demand for labour may be higher during the holiday season. Those who participate in this line of work are called seasonal workers and when they are out of work when the season ends they are considered seasonally unemployed.

Voluntary Unemployment

This is when unemployment occurs due to people who are willing and able for work chooses not to. They might not want to work as they may not be prepared or dislike the idea of working

Chapter 31: Key Words

GDP per Capita – GDP per Capita is the approximation of the total output of a country divided by the total population. It can be used to compare standards of living as typically, the higher the standard of living, the higher the GDP per Capita since it is the average output of the economy per person.

Total Output of Country/Population = GDP per Capita

Human Development Index (HDI) –

Review: 24/09/13

English

• Continuing short story “Destruction”
• Main characters are Blackie, Trevor “T”, Summers, etc.
• talking about shifts in power.
• Trevor is from a family of status , gains power as he has an idea about breaking into a house, loses power when things get out of hand
• Blackie regains power once again

Math

• sec x = 1/ cos x
• csc x = 1/sin x
• cot x = 1/ tan x
• sin^2x + cos^2x = 1
• tan x = sin x / cos x

Economics

• Writing up notes on causes of inflation
• monetary, cost-push, demand-pull

Biology

• Conducting experiment on rate of photosynthesis.

The Causes of Inflation

There are different factors that may cause demand, although three causes of inflation are demand-pull inflation, cost-push inflation and monetary inflation.

Inflation could result in an increase in national income (GDP) and/or an increase in wages/income.

Aggregate demand is the total demand in an economy and when aggregate demand increases it causes inflation to increase GDP. Aggregate demand includes consumption by consumers, investments by firms, government expenditures by the government as well as exports-imports (imports don’t count as they represent demand for foreign goods)

Demand-Pull Inflation 

Keynesians believe that inflation can be caused by too much demand in an economy, this is called demand-pull inflation

According to the law of demand, when there is an ↑ in Demand → ↑ in Price.

∴ when there is an ↑ in Aggregate Demand there is an ↑ in General Price Level which causes inflation.

Demand-pull inflation can be caused by:

• Rising consumer spending fueled by tax cuts or low interest rates
• An increase in government spending
• Rising demand for resources by firms
• Demand for exports

Cost-push inflation

Cost-push inflation is a Keynesian theory where costs in an businesses rises and causes inflation.

When businesses experience rising business costs they increase price in order to maintain their profit margins.

∴ due to the increase in price, inflation may occur.

For example;

A retailer buys goods from a supplier for £10 per unit. The retailer then adds 10 percent of the cost to get the selling price. This is £11 (£10 + 10% X £10). If the cost of this product from the supplier rises to £12, the new pice will be £13.20 (£12 + 10% X £12). The price of the product has been increased by the retailer from £11 to £13.20 because costs have risen. If the retailer did not increase the price when cost rose, profits would be reduced

Cost-push inflation can be caused by:

• Rising costs in commodities such as oil, steel, etc.
• Increase in wages
  • Employers may increase price in order to maintain their profit margin
• Higher indirect taxes from the government
  • Entrepreneurs can decided whether or not to pass on burden to the consumers in order to maintain their profit margin as raising prices can mean higher profit.
  • When a firm has monopoly power and decides to raise the prices in order to increase their profit

Monetary Inflation

Unlike Cost-push and demand-pull inflation, monetary inflation isn’t a Keynesian theory but instead is a theory followed by monetarists. When a country/economy experiences a sustained increase in money supply, it may result in inflation and that is called monetary inflation.

Monetary inflation is occurs when households, firms and governments borrow money to fund extra spending. As a result, the money supply increases as there are more bank deposits. This creates inflation because the extra money lent to the different parties causes demand to increase and prices to rise as well.

The Wansee Conference

The Wannsee Conference took place at a Villa overlooking the Lake of Wannsee on the outskirts of Berlin on 20th January 1942. The conference was chaired by Reinhard Heydrich who was the Head of the Reich Security’s Main Office. Hitler wasn’t present at the conference but SS officers and high-ranking civil servants were.

The main aim of the conference was to discuss and plan what they called “The Final Solution of the Jewish Question” which was basically the organized mass murder and destruction of every Jewish man, woman and child in continental Europe or at least within their reach.

After the mass murder of Jews in the German Invasion of the Soviet Union of 1941, the SS and police units began the eradicating entire Jewish operations. At the conference Heydrich reiterated that this type of activity would extend to all of Europe rather than just Eastern Europe. They calculated the number of Jews within their reach country by country and concluded that it was approximately 11 million Jews. This included countries not yet under Germany control at the time as well including 330,000 Jews in Britain and other European countries that were neutral including Sweden, Turkey, Spain, etc. This plan clearly shows how the Nazi annihilation of Jews was different to the persecution of other groups/communities.

There is no photographical evidence of the conference, but the minutes that were taken by Adolf Eichmann were later discovered in the files of German Foreign Office. There is a sort of strangeness in the situation since the planning and discussion of an extermination of an entire group of people was discussed in a Villa overlooking Lake Wannsee. Eichmann states that once the conference concluded, the group proceeded to drink brandy and smoke after “long hours of effort”.

Rate of Economic Growth in Different Countries

Since developed countries are already efficient, its hard for them to experience large growth rates.

Developing countries can experience greater growth rates since they have a lot to improve on.

Some reasons as to why some countries may grow faster than others are: 

• Exploiting natural resources
  • (e.g. oil, coal, etc)
• Better education systems
• Faster growth driven by higher level of investment
• reflects long term economic maturity
  • MEDC’s don’t have much to improve on as they are already efficient so it would be difficult to experience greater growth rates as they don’t experience greater growth as a result of being more developed.
  • LEDC’s can experience greater growth rates as they have more to improve on.
• Better Governance
  • e.g. a sign of bad governance could be corruption, etc.

How is the Standard of Living Measured?

Standard of living is the degree of wealth, material goods, comfort, and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area.

There are a number of different ways to measure the standard of living but the most popular way is comparing GDP per Capita.

↑ in GDP = Hopefully an ↑ in GDP per Capita

Although, the problem with using GDP per Capita to measure quality of life is that it is an average, but wealth may not be well distributed in the country. 

e.g. One person in the country may have a GDP of $500,000 while another may have $10 but the GDP per Capita between the both of them would be $250,005

Human Development Index

Another popular way of measuring standard of living is by using the Human Development Index (HDI)

The human development index is a wider measure than GDP per Capita. It measures:

• Real GDP per Capita
  • adjusted for foreign exchange rate
• Educational Attainment
  • how many years an average person spends in school
• Life Expectancy

It is set on a scale between 0 to 1.  Zero being the lowest possible value and 1 being the highest.  e.g. in 2008 Somalia had a score of 0.36 while Norway had a score of 0.95.

(disclaimer: these aren’t the official boundaries) 

• 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.55  is considered relatively low
• 0.6 ≤ x ≤ 0.7 is usually the range for medium/developing countries
• 0.7 ≤ x ≤ 0.8 is for high/developed countries
• 0.8 ≤ x ≤ 1.0 is very high/developed countries

Other ways to measure standard of living includes:

• Comparing literacy rates
• Gross National Happiness Index
• Genuine Progress Indicator
  • Only measures the output that doesn’t harm the environment/ isn’t in the expense of the environment.
• Population Density
  • e.g. too many people living in one city can lower standard of living (overpopulation)
• Gender, racial and religious tolerance
  • e.g. In Saudi Arabia, women have less rights an example of this is that they aren’t allowed to drive or be out alone without a male relative.